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True-to-type

An Airworthiness Certificate is certified for a plane's specific 'type-design.' This type design outlines what a plane is made out of, and what makes it that particular model. If we change some aspects of the equipment listed in the Type Certificate Data Sheet, then the plane is not true-to-type anymore, meaning it is no longer the plane it was certified as, and the Airworthiness Certificate is invalid unless we have a 'Supplemental Type Certificate, or we fix what we changed.

This topic will be discussed further in the Equipment section.

Differential Breaking

Some planes are fitted with Differential Toe Brakes, meaning we can brake more on one wheel than the other to aid with steering.

Yoke

A yoke is the "steering wheel" of the airplane. We use this to control our ailerons for bank/roll, and our elevator for pitch.

Calendar Months

A Calendar Month is period of time describing a month, and then rounding to midnight on the last day of the month.

Ex. If you got your annual, which expires after 12 calendar months, on April 10th, 2024, it would be valid until April 31st, 2025.

Hobbs Time

Hobbs time is the time the engine is running. This time begins counting from engine start. This time is often used for logging and billing.

Tach Time

Tach Time is the time that the engine is under stress. It is often measured by the RPM setting. This time is often used for maintenance.

Throttle (Black Lever)

The throttle controls how much of the fuel/air combination is being sent to the engine. Pushing the throttle forward sends more, pulling the throttle back sends less.

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Mixture (Red Lever)

The mixture controls the ratio of fuel to air being sent to the engine.

Pushing the mixture forward adjusts the combination for more fuel and less air. This is called a 'Rich' mixture.

Pulling the mixture back adjusts the combination for less fuel and more air. This is called a 'Lean' mixture.

Emergency Bus

A 'bus' in circuits is a common pathway of power to different items. Think of this like an extension cord, providing power to everything connected to it.

Some planes emergency battery power the emergency bus, which is the group of electrical equipment that will remain active on the emergency battery in the event of an alternator failure and dead main battery.

For example, some Piper Archer with G1000 avionics emergency bus powers these items.

ISA Pressure Lapse Rate

The reason you multiply by 1000 in the Pressure Altitude formula is because the ISA standard lapse rate is -1" of pressure for every 1000ft.

ISA Temperature Lapse Rate

To calculate ISA at our altitude, we need to begin at sea level during standard conditions, which is 15°C. We then subtract -2°C for every +1000ft increase.

For example, the ISA temp at an altitude of 645ft would be roughly 14°C.
(15-1=14)

The ISA temp at an altitude of 2,000ft would be 11°C.
(15-2-2=11)

Ground Visibility

Ground Visibility is the visibility observed by special equipment on the ground. This is determined by equipment that can accurately determine visibility.

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Flight Visibility

Flight Visibility is the visibility that we observe outside from the plane. This is based on our distance measuring skills.

Bravo Clearance

A Bravo Clearance is issued from ATC, and is specifically the words “Cleared into the Bravo” or something very similar.

Two-Way Communications

Two-way communications implies that you make a radio call to the appropriate ATC facility and they respond with at least your tail number.

However, if they say something similar to “N8R0CK, Remain outside of the airspace,” we would obviously not be allowed to enter the airspace even though they read our tail number.

Horizontal Situation Indicator (HSI)

A Horizontal Situation Indicator (HSI) is an instrument in the plane that combines a Heading Indicator with a Navigation Instrument (like a CDI) such that you may display your heading, and reference it against a GPS, VOR, etc.

Standard Airworthiness Certificate

This is the FAA's example of a Standard Airworthiness Certificate:

Mean Sea Level

Mean Sea Level is the average height of the surface of the ocean.

Pro Rata Share

…means paying your equal share based on number of passengers. For example:
ATLEAST 50% for 2 passengers,
ATLEAST 25% for 4 passengers, etc.

'Hood' Time

Simulated Instrument time, or 'hood' time, is in the aircraft when we simulate instrument conditions by wearing a view limiting device. A 'hood' used to be attached to the pilots head to limit the view outside. Often you will use "foggles" instead which are glasses with the lenses obscured.

Instrument conditions are times where we fly by only reference to our instruments. This often occurs if we were to enter a cloud.

Leg

A 'leg' of a flight is the portion of a flight between two points. Most commonly, this is the portion of a flight between two airports.

CG Envelope

A planes CG Envelope is the range where a planes CG can be, and safe flight still be possible. This range is often listen in the POH Section 6.

If a planes CG is too far forward, there may not be enough force available to lift the nose for takeoff.

If a planes CG is too far aft, the plane may liftoff but will be extremely unstable and could lead to an unrecoverable spin/loss of control of the aircraft.

Technically Advanced Airplane (TAA)

A TAA must be equipped with an electronically advanced avionics system that includes:

An electronic Primary Flight Display (PFD) that includes, at a minimum, an airspeed indicator, turn coordinator, attitude indicator, heading indicator, altimeter, and vertical speed indicator
An electronic Multifunction Display (MFD) that includes, at a minimum, a moving map using Global Positioning System (GPS) navigation with the aircraft position displayed
A two axis autopilot integrated with the navigation and heading guidance system
The PFD and MFD must be continuously visible

Complex Airplane

A complex airplane, as defined in 61.1, is an airplane that has a retractable landing gear, flaps, and a controllable pitch propeller.

This includes an engine control system that uses a computer to control the engine and propeller, such as a FADEC, or Full Authority Digital Engine Control.

Airworthy Definition

'Airworthy' means that an airplane conforms to its type certificate and, after inspection, is in condition for safe operation.

Airworthiness Definition: FAR 3.5

Glass

A 'glass' cockpit is slang for a plane that utilizes screens for its primary flight instruments, as opposed to a traditional '6-pack' system.

These screens are referred to as EFIS (Electronic Flight Instrument System), and also have other names depending on the type of avionics system. For example, the left screen of a G1000 system is usually a PFD (Primary Flight Display), while the left screen is the MFD (Multifunction Display).

VFR

Visual Flight Rules (VFR) are the rules we operate under when flying using visual references.

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VMC

Visual Meteorological Conditions (VMC) are when the ceilings are at or above 1,000ft, and visibility is 3 statute miles or more.

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IFR

Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) are the rules we operate under when we fly without using visual references and instead fly solely by reference to our instruments.

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IMC

Instrument Meteorological Conditions (IMC) are when the ceilings are below 1,000ft, and visibility is below 3 statute miles.

SVFR

Special VFR is when you receive special clearance from ATC to operate under VFR in weather below VMC minimums in controlled airspace.

GPS-Based Approach

A 'GPS-Based Approach' in the context of alternate planning is an approach that relies on GPS equipment for any part of it, even as a substitute for other conventional equipment.

For example:
Using GPS equipment as a substitute means of navigation for an out an out-of-service

VOR that supports an ILS missed approach procedure can be considered a 'GPS-Based Approach' for the purpose of alternate planning.

Baro-VNAV

Baro-VNAV is an RNAV system that uses barometric altitude information from the aircraft’s altimeter to compute vertical guidance for the pilot.

The vertical path is typically computed between two waypoints or an angle from a single waypoint. Baro-VNAV guidance is subject to error when flying in extreme temperatures. Baro-VNAV guidance is usually unavailable if using an altimeter setting different than the airport of intended landing.

Advisory Vertical Guidance (+V)

Advisory Vertical Guidance is an artificially created glide path from the final approach fix to the touchdown point on the runway.

This vertical guidance is optional and advisory only; the pilot should still use the altimeter as the primary altitude reference to meet all altitude restrictions.

Advisory Vertical Guidance is provided by some WAAS-capable GPS systems, and is found on LNAV or LP minimums, identifiable by the notation (+V) on your display.

"Go Visual"

"Going Visual" in the context of instrument training means transitioning from flying by reference to the instruments to flying by visual references.

We use the term "Go Visual" to simulate breaking out of the clouds. This is often used to tell the student to remove their view-limiting device (foggles) and begin visually maneuvering the plane.

Behind The Plane

Getting 'behind the plane' is a phrase which means that you are responding reactively, and often too slowly, to events happening during flight.

To fix this, you should be proactive, and think ahead as to what you could be doing to alleviate future tasks. This would be called being 'ahead of the plane'. This could be things like briefing landing procedure early, getting the weather early, etc.

Getting Behind The Aircraft: PHAK 2-22

Straight In Approach

A straight in approach is an approach where the final approach course is relatively straight in towards the runway of intended landing. A straight in approach cannot be published if:

The final approach course alignment with the runway centerline exceeds 30° (this is usually the reason).
The descent gradient is greater than 400ft/NM from the FAF to the threshold crossing height (TCH). When this maximum gradient is exceeded, the circling only approach procedure may be designed to meet the gradient criteria limits. This does not preclude a straight-in landing if a normal descent and landing can be made in accordance with the applicable CFRs.
A runway is not clearly defined on the airfield.
Other rare unique exceptions exist.

PT Protected Area

The protected area of a procedure turn is on the "maneuvering side" which is the side of the course that the procedure turn 'barb' is on.

The amount of space protected will be depicted on the profile view of the approach plate with the verbiage of "Remain within xx NM" with the xx being the distance from the fix that is protected on the holding side. This is often 10nm.

CFIT

CFIT stands for Controlled Flight Into Terrain, which is when a perfectly functional airplane is flown into the ground due to pilot error, poor planning, disorientation, etc.

HAT/HAA

HEIGHT ABOVE TOUCHDOWN (HAT)- The height of the DH or MDA above the highest runway elevation in the touchdown zone (first 3,000 feet of the runway). HAT is published on instrument approach charts in conjunction with all straight-in minimums.

HEIGHT ABOVE AIRPORT (HAA)- The height of the MDA above the published airport elevation. This is published in conjunction with circling minimums.

P/C Glossary Section H

RCO

An RCO, or Remote Communications Outlet, is a sort of "middle-man" station that relays radio signals to a flight service station elsewhere.

Go Missed

The phrase "go missed" is a slang phrase (nonstandard phraseology) that means "go around and execute the missed approach procedure".

Expect Further Clearance (EFC)

An EFC time is a time when we can expect further clearance. As we approach our EFC time, we should ask ATC for further instructions, or we should begin troubleshooting our radio for failure.

This time is helpful because it gives us an idea of how long a delay might be, and allows us to better plan in a lost-comm scenario.

Surface Friction

Surface Friction is the friction between the ground and the air, which slows the air down. Surface friction reduces the Coriolis Effect, and as such, wind tends to flow more directly across pressure differences (Pressure Gradient Force).

"Kinds of Approaches"

The regulation regarding the instrument XC states it must involve 3 "different kinds of approaches with the use of navigation systems." This verbiage has been debated for years, but as of now the old legal interpretations have been rescinded, and a 2022 interpretation is the most current.

The 2022 interpretation says in summary that any 3 different lines of minimum can be used to satisfy this requirement. This means if we shot 3 RNAV approaches to LPV, LNAV/VNAV, and LNAV minimums, that would satisfy the requirement.

Shooting multiple different circling approaches has been debated, so we cannot say whether it is legally satisfactory. Additionally, PAR approaches are now satisfactory. ASR approaches are still debated, but likely satisfactory.

Redundancy

Redundancy is the inclusion of extra components that are not strictly necessary for functioning, in case other components fail.

Aviation, although extremely safe, has the potential for catastrophic damage. As such, redundancy is an extremely important concept in aviation and will be continuously reinforced in training.

By having multiple 'layers' of redundancy, we can ensure continued safe operation even after malfunctions or failures.

Lycoming SSP-110-2 Certified Engines

This will be discussed further in a future section.

Weather Information Comms

We obtain the weather information ourselves to avoid requiring ATC to tell us on their frequency.

We usually report this information on initial contact with the Controlling Agency near our departure/destination airport.

This is most commonly when speaking with Ground on departure and with Approach/Tower on arrival.

Weather information systems will be covered in greater depth later in this course.

Squelch

The squelch of a radio is the 'noise-cancelling' function that prevents background noise from being picked up by our microphones and receivers.

If a squelch were to malfunction, it could block incoming/outgoing radio transmissions. When we disable it, the transmissions will include the background noise and be louder, but this may fix our radio issues.